Speed Development in
Swimmers: Total Conditioning Training
Wayne
Goldsmith and David Pyne
Introduction
Competitive
swimming is all about swimming fast and speed, in conjunction with technique,
forms the most precious element of a swimmer’s make-up. Coaches are,
after all, dedicated to one task: preparing swimmers to swim their event
as fast as possible. While some swimmers possess a greater degree of
natural speed than others, it is clear that a well planned training program
should improve swimming speed and competitive performance of all swimmers.
This article examines three approaches to the development of speed in all
swimmers and outlines their coaching and scientific rationale. We then
introduce the concept of total condition training, which has the aim of
maximising both speed and endurance. Several features of this model are
discussed in detail and relevant suggestions on developing speed in swimmers are
presented.
What
is Swimming Speed?
In
practice, the operational definition of speed varies from sport to sport and
within in a sport, such as swimming, from event to event. In a generic
sense, we can think of speed as the ability to swim a given distance in the
shortest possible time. Speed can be further divided into four
components: as reaction time, acceleration, maximum speed and speed
endurance. Reaction time in swimming is defined as the start time, which
is time off the block from a full racing start to the 5m mark.
Acceleration is the ability to reach maximal speed in the shortest possible time
– this is obviously a key factor in the 50m and 100m events. Maximum
speed is the peak swimming speed that a swimmer can reach (and often only
sustain for a few meters). Speed-Endurance, or race pace is the speed that
swimmers can hold over the required race distance. This speed is slower than
maximal speed, but the differential between speed-endurance and maximal speed is
smaller for the better swimmers.
Apart
from the 50m event, it is possible that the swimmer with the highest maximum
speed may not necessarily be the winner. Start times, turn times and
finish times are often decisive factors and inspection of competitive evaluation
reports from national and international meets will bear this out. The
skill and technical aspects of swimming are obviously critical and have been
addressed in many articles in Australian Swim Coach (see articles by Bernie
Wakefield, Ken Wood and Gennardi Tourestski). This article will focus on
the training considerations for the development of physiological capacities that
underpin the various aspects of swimming speed.
In
order to develop a good speed training program for individual swimmers, it is
necessary to examine the fitness and technical requirements of the different
events. For the 50m event, it is obvious that reaction time, acceleration
and maximum speed are all critical factors. For the 100-200m events, all
the different aspects of speed (reaction time, acceleration, maximum speed and
speed endurance) are important. For the middle-distance and distance
events, reaction time, acceleration and maximum speed are less important, but a
highly developed level of speed endurance is critical. Once these factors
are sorted out the planning of speed training can begin. Initially, the
aim is to plan a general training program that addresses the overall needs of
the team or group. However, it is necessary to evaluate each swimmer
individually to determine the strengths and weakness for each of the different
components of speed.
In
essence, there are three common approaches used for the development of speed in
swimmers:
1)
High-Volume and High-Intensity Training
2)
Specific Energy System Training
and
3)
Total Condition Training.
1.
High Volume and High Intensity Training (Broken Egg Coaching)
We
refer to this approach as “broken egg coaching”, because it is much like
throwing a dozen eggs against the wall, and seeing which one doesn’t
break. The high-volume high-intensity approach has the following features:
Give
all swimmers as much volume and intensity training as they can handle (or
can’t handle).
Three
weeks out from the meet reduce the volume and do a few sprints.
Rest
one week out by drastically reducing the volume and pray that the speed will
come when the swimmers are rested.
This
approach, sometimes seen in swim programs with a big feeder system, works on
giving swimmers a great deal of non-specific work. If a coach adopts
this approach, then they can be confident that the average fitness of their
squad will be higher than the average fitness of most other squads, making them
very competitive at most levels. Many coaches have been relatively
successful using this coaching method.
It
is generally accepted that a well-developed aerobic base is necessary for
success in swimming at the highest level. Long term success is also
dependent on developing a broad range of physiological, psychological and
technical skills. The high-volume and high intensity approach can
often produce great age group results and is particularly effective when working
with large teams. Coaches who have achieved success using this technique
are understandably reluctant to change a tried and proven method. In the
long-term however, neglecting overall development in the effort to maximise
training volume and intensity in the hope of short-term goals, is in our
opinion, more likely to limit success at older age group and elite levels.
Remember, “many meaningless miles means mass mediocrity”!
PROS
Swimmers
get very fit and are competitive at most levels of competition.
Swimmers
develop a large aerobic base.
Easy
to control large group of swimmers.
CONS
Potentially
an increased risk of illness and/or injury.
Does
not permit training to be tailored to individual needs.
Swimmers
may become overtrained and burned out.
Performance
can be limited at the top level owing to neglect of the full development of
all energy systems and swimming abilities.
2.
Specific Energy System Training
It
is often heard that sprint swimmers do too much volume training, and many “commentators”
cite the principle of specificity to justify their argument. The dynamics
of the different energy systems and the principle of specificity suggest, at
face value, that sprint swimmers should do less work than currently advocated by
most coaches. In some circles, it was and is fashionable to look for
low-volume and high-intensity sprint training programs. The model of
specific energy system training is based on the following rationale.
Firstly most swimming events last around 2 minutes or less and consequently
highly anaerobic in nature. Secondly, basic physiology and the principles
of specificity suggest that swimmers need to perform training at race-specific
speed in order to develop the appropriate energy system(s) required for that
particular event. On this basis, it is argued that sprint swimmers should
do far less training at submaximal level and concentrate on the development of
the alactic (ATP-PC) and lactic (anaerobic glycolysis) energy systems through
sprint training.
Among
other things, this system-specific approach overlooks the interactive effects of
training all the energy system pathways concurrently. It is a fundamental
principle of physiology that all energy systems contribute to the energy
requirements of physical activity: the contribution of each of the three
systems is dependent upon the intensity and duration of exercise. It is an
oversimplification to assume that short-explosive events are totally alactic or
that middle and long-distance events are totally aerobic. Every swimming
race requires a combination of all the energy systems. The periodised
nature of modern swimming training programs permits endurance, strength, speed,
power and technical skills to be developed concurrently. Inspection of
most coaches’ training programs would show that all these attributes are
addressed to some extent during each weeks’ training.
PROS
Is
consistent with the principle of specificity of training.
Develops
great speed over short distances.
Has
proved to be popular with swimmers.
CONS
Limited
aerobic development in spring swimmers may have negative consequences in
lactate breakdown and removal.
Increased
risk of injury and swimmer ‘burnout’.
May
limit swimmer’s ability to finish off races.
3.
Total Condition Training
A
theme which has stood the test of time and is considered the most effective way
to prepare all swimmers, including sprint swimmers, is a balanced and integrated
training program that addresses all the aspects of conditioning. A fully
integrated training program normally follows a periodised format where
endurance, speed, strength, power, and all the necessary skills and technique,
are developed concurrently. A periodised approach requires that certain
aspects of fitness are emphasized at different stages of the training program,
but an underlying feature is that all elements are maintained at an acceptable
level. The current format of the Australian and international calendars,
where there are approximately 12-14 weeks between national championships and
major international meet, is sufficient time to fully prepare all aspects for
all swimmers. Hence the title “Total Condition Training”.
PROS
Facilitates
concurrent development of endurance, speed, strength and skill.
May
lead to higher level performance in the longer term.
Permits
a more general preparation of swimmers for a full range of events.
CONS
Long-term
goals may be at the expense of short-term gains.
Specialised
and detailed program is more suited to smaller sized squads.
Features
of Total Condition Training for Speed
To
improve reaction time, which is the time from a dive start to the 5m mark
can be divided into reaction time and movement time. Reaction time is
the time from the firing of the starting gun to the first sign of
movement. Movement time is the actual duration of the start from the
first sign of movement to the swimmer reading the 5m marker. The start
is an explosive movement and will be assisted by a conditioning program that
develops strength and power in the lower body. Of course, starting is
also a skill that needs to be learned and perfected through appropriate
instruction and practice. It may be useful to set aside 10 minutes for
group starting practice (and relay change overs) every week or two.
To
improve acceleration, training sets incorporating a systematic increase in
speed, up to maximal speed, should be undertaken. In swimming
parlance, the most common acceleration drill is the “build” set and its
many variations. This work is undertaken normally over 50m or 100m and
involves an increase in pace through each lap or 25m segment. The
increments of the increase in speed will vary according to the individual
swimmers event and specific requirements. Some coaches also use “variable
pace” drills where swimmers can accelerate and decelerate according to a
set pattern e.g. 8 x 50m on a 60 second cycle alternating 25m fast, 25m easy
with 25m easy, 25m fast. Another type of acceleration drill is a short
descending set such as 8 x 50m D1-4 on 60 seconds, where the times are
descended from moderate to fast in efforts 1-4 and again in 5-8.
Strength
and power training is essential to fully develop the various
components of speed. This work may take the form of traditional
strength training in the gym (free weights, machine weights or circuits) or
more specialised forms such as plyometrics, jump training, swim bench, jump
squats, power cleans or other strength and power related activities.
It is worthwhile to consult a strength and conditioning coach or gym
instructor to discuss the strength and power training requirements for both
age group and senior swimmers. Similar to speed, there are different
components of strength such as general strength, maximal strength, power and
strength endurance. Power is the combination of speed (time) and
strength (force) and therefore higher velocity drills must be considered;
power will not be developed unless high speed intervals are used. The
most commonly used drills for power training are sets of 15-25m efforts at
maximal effort from either a dive or push start eg. 10 x 50m as 20m fast –
30m recovery on a 1:15 cycle.
In
the model of total conditioning, maximal speed is developed by a combination
of endurance, speed and supplementary training activities. Maximal
speed can only be sustained for a short distance (duration) before
deceleration is evident. Deceleration or slowing of swimming speed is
most likely the result of biochemical and physiological processes such as
depletion of the high energy compounds ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and
creatine phosphate within contracting skeletal muscle. The most
effective means of developing speed is through a periodised program of high
to maximal velocity short interval training. This type of work
obviously takes the form of sets like: (I) 10 x 25m FS maximal effort
or (ii) 8 x 50m at 200m race pace with 100m recovery swimming, The
most important factor is the speed or pace of the repeats. Maximal
race speed will only be improved when swimmers are swimming at speeds very
close to, equal to, or in excess of existing maximal speed. The latter
can be achieved by use of speed assisted drills.
An
important principle of the physiology of spring training is that very high
energy compounds in the muscle such as ATP and creatine phosphate are
depleted rapidly during maximal effort work and take approximately 3 minutes
to be fully restored. Recent research at the University of Western
Australia has shown that it may take 4-6 minutes before normal levels are
restored. This means that longer interval sprint work which
significantly depletes creatine phosphate levels (e.g. maximal effort 50m
and 100m intervals) for outright speed is most effective on cycle or turn
around times of approximately 5 minutes. In practice, this is achieved
by having swimmers undertake some low to moderate-intensity aerobic recovery
swimming during long and intensive sprint sessions e.g. 8 x 50m
maximal effort with 200m recovery on a 5 minute cycle. Active recovery
is preferable between efforts as the body will recover more quickly than
with passive rest (e.g. sitting on the deck or supporting one self on a lane
rope!).
Another
important type of sprint training is the short rest spring set such as 4-8 x
50m FS maximal effort on a 35 seconds cycle. Gennardi Touretski refers
to this type of set as an “activation” set. The aim is to activate
or mobilise the physiological processes of the lactic acid energy system
(anaerobic glycolysis). This set is only done infrequently aiming key
points in the training program eg during the transition from aerobic
to quality work, prior to a mid-season competition, and during a full length
competitive taper. This work is very arduous and should only be
attempted when swimmers are in good shape. Not only does it play a
role in stimulating some of the necessary physiological adaptations, it is
of course, very specific training for 199-400m events.
A
comment on lactate tolerance training. This term has been used in
several of the classification of training systems developed for swimming and
refers to high intensity interval work that is known to elicit high levels
of blood lactate. In one sense the term is misleading, because it may
imply that the main aim of the exercise is to develop high levels of lactate
in order to stimulate the development of physiological processes. Of
course the debilitating effects associated with an elevated level of muscle
and blood lactate can impair training and competitive performance.
This is important, but the critical aspect is to improve the swimming speed
during this type of work: a common mistake is to focus too heavily on
the effort. Swimming these type of sets with high heart rate and blood
lactate levels at slow speeds is not a very effective method of
training. Experienced coaches will know the considerable limitations
of doing repeat maximal effort 100’s eg. 6 – 8 x 100m maximal efforts on
8:00. There is, arguably, a place for such sets, but a more effective
approach is to incorporate recovery swimming between each of the quality
efforts. This way, you get better speed without the interference of
high blood lactates.
Coaches
should use speed-assisted drills throughout the training program.
Examples of speed-assisted drills include the use of paddles and pull buoy,
stretch cords and various pulley systems. The Australian Institute of
Sport has recently installed a motorised pulley in its 50m pool and this has
proved to be very useful in introducing swimmers to higher level
speeds. For example, with senior male freestyle swimmers, the speed is
set to 20-22 seconds, which is slightly in excess of race speed. The
pulley system is also an effective means of checking the quality of
streamlining of individual swimmers. Any deficiency in streamlining
(excessive drag) becomes very noticeable when the speed of the pulley is set
above normal race speed.
The
development of speed-endurance is, as the name suggests, a combination of
speed and endurance training. We have suggested previously that a
highly developed background of endurance is essential to support the speed
training necessary for an elite level sprint swimmer. This approach,
of course, has to meet the requirements of individual swimmers, and what
suits one swimmer may not suit another. In brief terms,
speed-endurance is developed through a periodised program of basic aerobic
work (longer intervals at the level of sub-maximal aerobic and anaerobic
threshold), general dry-land strength-endurance training in the gym, and
specific high-intensity interval training (sets of high intensity 50-200m
intervals).
The
frequency of speed training is another common topic of conversation.
Through experience, some coaches devote a number of specific sessions to
speed each week, while others will incorporate a few sprints at the end of
every workout. There is no hard and fast rule here. For a full
and exhausting sprint workout it is suggested that at least 24-48 hours of
recovery (i.e. low to moderate-intensity aerobic swimming) be undertaken
before the next full sprint workout. This time is required for muscle
glycogen stores, particularly in fast twitch muscle fibres. To be restored
to normal levels. This length of recovery should also permit
regeneration of neuromuscular pathways that regular muscular
contraction. Central nervous system or neuromuscular fatigue may limit
the ability to swim fast even though muscles may be fully hydrated and
refueled.
The
importance of the technical aspects of spring swimming is appreciated by
every coach: In addition to the subjective evaluation of the coach
(the so-called coaching “eye”), it is good practice to utilise video
camm technology to occasionally assess and correct the technical aspects of
each swimmer’s stroke. Some elite coaches may have access to more
sophisticated biomechanical analysis of the different strokes at different
speeds. One approach to the development of speed is to improve the
efficiency and economy of swimming throughout the full range of training and
competitive speeds. While all coaches acknowledge the importance of
improving efficiency and economy during submaximal swimming, it is also
equally important in higher velocity spring swimming. The best
sprinters have efficient and economical techniques at the higher speeds in
terms of both metabolic and mechanical factors.
Speed
should be assessed regularly by timing 25 and 50m efforts in the swimmer’s
main stroke. Coaches do this routinely and it is a good way of
checking how an individual swimmer’s speed is responding to
training. To check reaction time, acceleration and maximal speed it is
appropriate to use a dive start. To simply check acceleration and
speed, a push start can be used. Coaches (and swimmers) should use the
25m and 50m split times from their best competitive effort as a reference
point. For speed-endurance, most coaches use either 100m and 200m race
pace (and occasionally 400m race pace). In this work, the average pace
held through a 100m or 200m, is used in 50m intervals e.g. 8 x 50m at
200m race pace (e.g. 32 seconds for a swimmer with 2:08 200m PB) with a 100m
recovery swim between each effort.
Measuring
the stroke rate and stroke count is a practical method of evaluating (in
gross terms) the stroke mechanics of any given swim. During
competition, most 50m and 100m swimmers will reach stroke rates between 50
and 60 stroke cycles per minute. During low- to moderate-intensity
aerobic swimming (which forms the majority of the weekly volume) stroke
rates usually range between 25-40 strokes per minute. It is essential,
therefore, the ensure that high-intensity sprint work is completed with race
specific stroke rates (50-60 strokes/min). If a swimmer is unable to
“rate up” to the appropriate level, it may be prudent to hold the speed
session over to another day when they are able to complete the workout as
specified.